Current Issue
August 1999
Table of Contents
- How to contribute
- Welcome to ISAPA Members
- Some Thoughts about the Present and Future Role of Regular
Physical Activity in Successful Aging. Wojtek J. Chodzko-Zajko.
How to Contribute to the ISAPA Newsletter
In the future, ISAPA will reserve this page for a newsletter with contents submitted
regularly by members of ISAPA. Appropriate submissions include brief commentary/opinion articles, descriptions
of innovative physical activity programs, and other physical activity and aging information. In order to
submit information for consideration for inclusion in the ISAPA newsletter please send your submission to Wojtek Chodzko-Zajko,
ISAPA President.
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A Warm Welcome to All ISAPA Members
On Wednesday August 11
th 1999 at the World Congress on Physical Activity, Aging and Sport, the International Society
for Aging and Physical Activity will hold its first Annual General Meeting, marking the launching of the first
international, independent, membership based academic society in the area of aging and physical activity.
A legitimate question for researchers and clinicians interested in the area of
aging and activity is why do we need another academic society? In this first web-based newsletter, I will attempt
to explain why I believe the time has come to establish an independent, membership-based academic society in the
area of aging and physical activity.
Over the past two decades there has been a tremendous expansion of interest into
the physical activity needs of older persons. This interest is reflected in an increase in scientific journals,
scholarly publications, and academic meetings focusing on aging and physical activity. In 1999, Orlando, Florida,
USA will be the site of the 5 th
World Congress on Physical Activity, Aging, and Sport. By 1999, the Journal of Aging and Physical Activity will
be in its seventh year of publication. Despite this increase in interest, until now, no independent professional
organization has been formed in the area of aging and physical activity. There is a clear need for a not-for-profit
professional society for scientists, scholars, and practitioners that can promote international initiatives in
research, clinical practice, and public policy in the area of aging and physical activity.
ISAPA is designed to be a membership-based academic organization society with
a democratically elected and representative Executive Committee. The mission of ISAPA is as follows;
- To promote physical activity, exercise science, and fitness in the health
and well-being of older persons.
- To promote international initiatives in research, clinical practice, and public
policy in the area of aging and physical activity.
- To organize a World Congress on Aging and Physical Activity approximately
every 4 years.
- To serve as a liaison between various international, national, and regional
professional groups with an interest in activity and aging .
- To disseminate information about aging and physical activity through Journals
and other publications.
The Journal of Aging and Physical Activity has
agreed to be the official academic journal of ISAPA. Human Kinetics Publishers has agreed to assist ISAPA with
the administrative task of establishing the new society. The arrangement between ISAPA, JAPA, and HK requires that
ISAPA will be an independent, membership based organization led by a democratically elected executive committee
consisting of elected representatives from four geographic regions: Europe; North America; Asia and the Pacific
Rim; and South America, Africa, and the Middle East.
Individuals who are current JAPA subscribers will receive a complimentary membership
in ISAPA from August - December, 1999. From January 1, 2000 membership in ISAPA will be combined with a subscription
to JAPA. The total cost to the professional member would only $16 more per annum than the basic annual JAPA subscription
(students would pay $10 more than the JAPA student rate).
Membership is open to professionals and students with an interest in gerontology,
physical activity, exercise science, fitness, or other fields related to the mission of ISAPA. International, national,
and regional organizations with an interest in aging and physical activity can apply for affiliation with ISAPA.
Benefits of Membership
- A biannual www based newsletter
- The Journal of Aging and Physical Activity
- Access to the ISAPA world wide web site, including an electronic bulletin board
at www.isapa.org
- Updated information on Aging and Physical Activity, including recent initiatives,
position stands, and conference announcements
- Electronic directory of ISAPA members
- 15-20 percent discount for registration at all future World Congresses
- Potential registration discounts at other international academic conferences.
ISAPA Executive Committee:
The following individuals have agreed to serve as interim Executive Committee
members until the first scheduled elections can be held.
Wojtek Chodzko-Zajko, USA, President
Roberta Rikli, USA North America, Secretary
Sandra O'Brien-Cousins, Canada North America
Eino Heikkinen, Finland Europe
Michael Sagiv, Israel Europe
Greg Gass, Australia Asia and Pacific Rim
Kiyoji Tanaka, Japan Asia and Pacific Rim
Adnan Al-Edan, Kuwait South America, Africa, and the Middle East
Andrea Prates, Brazil South America, Africa, and the Middle East
Waneen Spirduso, USA At-Large member
Steven Blair, USA At-Large member
ISAPA can be contacted at the following e-mail address ISAPA@kent.edu
I look forward to working with all of you on this important new endeavor. Please
feel free to contact me or any of my colleagues on the ISAPA Executive Committee.
Sincerely,
Wojtek J. Chodzko-Zajko, PhD
President
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SOME THOUGHTS ABOUT THE PRESENT AND FUTURE ROLE OF REGULAR
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY IN SUCCESSFUL AGING
Wojtek J. Chodzko-Zajko, PhD, Kent State University
Until a sufficient number of member-submitted articles are received for the ISAPA
newsletter, rather than leave the newsletter site blank, I thought that it might be valuable to reflect briefly
on the status of our understanding of the relationship between physical activity and the aging process. Portions
of my comments below have been adapted with permission from two recent review articles; Chodzko-Zajko, W.J. (1998)The
Physiology of Aging and Exercise, Exercise For Older Adults, R.T. Cotton (Ed.) Human Kinetics, Champaign, IL.;
Chodzko-Zajko, W.J. (1998). Physical Activity and Aging: Implications for Health and Quality of Life in Older Persons,
Presidents Council on Physical Fitness and Sports Research Digest, pp 1-8, December, 1998, and from a paper presented
at the World Health Organization consultation meeting in Hong Kong, April, 1999.
There can be little doubt that sedentary lifestyles are associated with a significant
elevation in the risk of chronic diseases, as well as a significant decline in life quality with advancing age.
In the first section of this article, I review briefly what is known about the impact of physical activity on quality
of life in old age. In the second section, I comment briefly on some personal observations regarding the
future of programs for the promotion of active aging.
Part One - The Benefits of Physical Activity:
Recently, the United States Surgeon General's Report (US Surgeon General, 1996) concluded that regular physical
activity has important positive effects on the musculoskeletal, cardiovascular, respiratory, and endocrine systems.
Furthermore, the effect of exercise on these systems is associated with a number of health benefits including a
decreased risk of premature mortality and reduced risks of coronary heart disease, hypertension, colon cancer,
and diabetes mellitus. Participation in physical activity also appears to reduce depression and anxiety, improve
mood, and enhance our ability to perform daily tasks throughout the life span (US Surgeon General, 1996). Despite
this growing awareness of the health benefits of physical activity for older adults, exercise participation and
adherence is poor (Bausell, 1986; King et al, 1992). In the United States, older adults exercise less frequently
and choose activities that are lower in their absolute energy demands than younger individuals (Stephens, &
Casperson, 1994). Below, a brief overview of what is currently known about the physiological, psychological, and
social benefits of regular activity is presented. Because physical activity has been defined in many different
ways, in this paper, the World Health Organization's broad and inclusive definition of physical activity is adopted
which includes all movements in everyday life, including work, recreation, exercise, and sporting activities (WHO,
1997).
i. Physiological Benefits of Physical Activity: The physiological benefits of participation in regular physical activity are now well
established. Among the short-term benefits attributed to regular exercise are improved sleep (Brassington and Hicks,
1995), improved glucose regulation (Giacca et al., 1994) and increases in catecholamine activity (Richter and Sutton,
1994). Long term adaptations to extended exercise participation include improved cardiovascular performance, increased
muscular strength and endurance, enhanced flexibility and range of motion, decreased adiposity and improved lipid
status (Spirduso, 1995). Goldberg and Hagberg (1990) have suggested that the physiological responses of elderly
adults to exercise training are essentially similar to those experienced by younger individuals. The WHO (1997)
has summarized the known physiological benefits of regular physical activity as follows (see Table One below);
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Table One
A SUMMARY OF THE PHYSIOLOGICAL BENEFITS OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY FOR OLDER PERSONS
World Health Organization, 1997
Immediate benefits:
- Glucose levels: Physical activity helps regulate blood glucose levels.
- Catecholamine activity: Both adrenalin and noradrenalin levels are stimulated
by physical activity.
- Improved sleep: Physical activity has been shown to enhance sleep quality and
quantity in individuals of all ages.
Long term effects:
- Aerobic/cardiovascular endurance: Substantial improvements in almost all aspects
of cardiovascular functioning have been observed following appropriate physical training.
- Resistive training/muscle strengthening: Individuals of all ages can benefit
from muscle strengthening exercises. Resistance training can have a significant impact on the maintenance of independence
in old age.
- Flexibility: Exercise which stimulates movement throughout the range of motion
assists in the preservation and restoration of flexibility.
- Balance/coordination: Regular activity helps prevent and/or postpone the age
associated declines in balance and coordination that are a major risk factor for falls.
- Velocity of movement: Behavioral slowing is a characteristic of advancing age.
Individuals who are regularly active can often postpone these age-related declines.
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ii. Psychological Benefits of Physical Activity: Physical activity can also have significant psychological consequences. There is now compelling
evidence that regular exercise enhances psychological health and well being. Among the short-term psychological
benefits attributed to regular exercise are improved relaxation (Landers and Petruzzello. 1994), reduced stress
and anxiety (Petruzzello et al., 1991) and improved mood state (Nieman et al., 1993). More long term benefits include
improved life satisfaction (Berger & Hecht, 1990), enhanced self-esteem and heightened self-efficacy (McAuley
and Rudolph, 1995), and fewer mood state disturbances (O'Connor, Aenchbacher, & Dishman, 1995).The WHO (1997)
has summarized the known psychological benefits of regular physical activity as follows (see Table Two below);
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Table Two
A SUMMARY OF THE PSYCHOLOGICAL BENEFITS OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY FOR OLDER PERSONS
World Health Organization, 1997
Immediate benefits:
- Relaxation: Appropriate physical activity enhances relaxation.
- Reduces Stress and Anxiety: There is evidence that regular physical activity
can reduce stress and anxiety.
- Enhanced Mood State: Numerous people report elevations in mood state following
appropriate physical activity.
Long term effects:
- General Well Being: Improvements in almost all aspects of psychological functioning
have been observed following periods of extended physical activity.
- Improved Mental Health: Regular exercise can make an important contribution in
the treatment of several mental illnesses, including depression and anxiety neuroses.
- Cognitive Improvements: Regular physical activity may help postpone age related
declines in Central Nervous System processing speed and improve reaction time.
- Motor Control and Performance: Regular activity helps prevent and/or postpone
the age associated declines in both fine and gross motor performance.
- Skill acquisition: New skills can be learned and existing skills refined by all
individuals regardless of age.
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iii. The importance of physical activity for the social
functioning of older persons : In the recent World Health Organization
Guidelines for Promoting Physical Activity in Older Persons (WHO, 1997) a number of significant short and long-term
effects of physical activity on socio-cultural variables are discussed. Aging is associated with a need to adjust
to changing roles and role losses. Due to factors such as, death of friends and loved ones, retirement, financial
hardship, ill-health, and isolation, many older people are forced to systematically relinquish more and more of
the roles which they consider to be a meaningful part of their identity (McPherson, 1990). Physical activity can
be helpful in assisting older persons to adjust better to these role losses. Activity programs can provide seniors
with the opportunity to widen their social networks, to stimulate new friendships, and to acquire positive new
roles in their retirement (McPherson, 1990; 1994). The WHO (1997) summarizes the known socio-cultural consequences
of regular physical activity as follows (see Table Three);
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Table Three
A SUMMARY OF THE SOCIAL BENEFITS OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY FOR OLDER PERSONS
World Health Organization, 1997
Immediate benefits:
- Empowering Older Individuals: A large proportion of the older adult population
voluntarily adopts a sedentary lifestyle which eventually threatens to reduce independence and self-sufficiency.
Participation in appropriate physical activity can help empower older individuals and assist them in playing a
more active role in society..
- Enhanced Social and Cultural Integration: Physical activity programs, particularly
when carried out in small groups and/or in social environments enhance social and inter-cultural interactions for
many older adults
Long term effects:
- Enhanced Integration: Regularly active individuals are less likely to withdraw
from society and more likely to actively contribute to the social milieu.
- Formation of new friendships: Participation in physical activity, particularly
in small groups and other social environments stimulates new friendships and acquaintances.
- Widened Social and Cultural Networks: Physical activity frequently provides individuals
with an opportunity to widen available social networks.
- Role maintenance and new role acquisition: A physically active lifestyle helps
foster the stimulating environments necessary for maintaining an active role in society, as well as for acquiring
positive new roles.
- Enhanced Intergenerational Activity: In many societies, physical activity is
a shared activity which provides opportunities for intergenerational contact thereby diminishing stereotypic perceptions
about aging and the elderly.
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iv. Special Need for Research into Physical
Activity Among Older Adults : Exercise participation and adherence decreases
with age (King et al, 1992). In comparison to younger adults, older adults exercise less frequently and choose
activities that are lower in their absolute energy demands (Stephens, & Casperson, 1994). Over two-thirds of
older adults living in the United States report having no regular exercise routine (Kovar, Fitti, & Chyba,
1992) Among older adults who begin a formal program of physical activity, compliance and adherence are major impediments
to success (Ostrow, 1986). With the growing awareness of the benefits of regular exercise, it is sometimes difficult
to understand why exercise professionals have been so unsuccessful in motivating older adults to engage in regular
physical activity. Various demographic, social, and psychological variables have been proposed as determinants
of physical activity in older adults (Dishman, 1994). For example, lack of access to facilities and programs, lack
of meaningful role models, institutionalism, and retirement have all been cited by older adults as reasons why
they are physically inactive (Maloney, Fallon, & Wittenberg, 1984; Shephard & Sidney, 1979). In addition,
social or cultural expectations, such as stereotypes concerning the appropriateness of physical activity for older
adults, or misconceptions about physical abilities have also been cited as reasons for lack of involvement (Ostrow,
1986).
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Part Two : Planning for the Future -
The Need to Develop New and Innovative Activity Programs for Persons of All Ages:
In 1992, the United Nations General Assembly designated that the year 1999 will
be celebrated as the International Year of Older Persons (IYOP). "Towards a society for all ages" was
selected as the overall theme for the IYOP. The United Nations identified four dimensions which are considered
to be critical components necessary for the development of a society for all ages; (1) Improving the situation
of older persons; (2) Fostering life-long individual development; (3) Acknowledging multi-generational relationships;
and (4) Addressing socio-economic needs. Alexandre Sidorenko, Officer-in-Charge of the United Nations Programme
on Aging states that the aging of society has resulted in a demographic, socio-economic, and cultural revolution
which has greatly affected the relationships between the generations (Sidorenko, 1999).
I believe that the "Towards a society for all ages" theme of the International Year of Older Persons
has at least two implications for those of us working in the area of aging and physical activity. First,
I believe that the time has come for us to integrate physical activity programs into the broader context of
an actively aging society. In recent years a consensus has emerged among physical activity and aging researchers
that a key objective of physical activity participation in older adults is the preservation and/or restoration
of acceptable quality of life (QOL). While QOL is difficult to define precisely, most researchers agree that quality
of life is dependent upon a complex combination of factors including physical health, psychological well-being,
social satisfaction, and spiritual contentment. It is increasingly clear that physical activity alone is insufficient
for the promotion of high QOL in old age. In order to age successfully, older persons will need to be not
only physically active, but also socially, intellectually, culturally, and (for many seniors) spiritually active.
Somewhat surprisingly, to date, professionals in the area of physical activity and aging have focused little attention
on the development and implementation of Integrated Programming opportunities for seniors. The
success of the Elder Hostel movement in North America, and the University of the Third Age throughout the world
suggests that there is a great demand for intellectual, cultural and artistic programming among the older adult
community. One of the challenges for our profession in the new millennium will be to learn how to integrate
physical activity into the wider social, cultural and economic context of active aging as a whole.
A second major challenge for our profession is the development of intergenerational
physical activity opportunities which will bring together young and old persons in a mutually supportive physical
activity environment. Sidorenko (1999) notes that in order to achieve a society for all ages it will be necessary
to "...establish an age-integrated society, one that fosters reciprocity and equity between the generations
even as it encourages lifelong development and self-reliance on the part of individuals (Sidorenko, 1999). In contemporary
gerontology there has been an increasing emphasis on the need to develop intergenerational programs which are able
to bring together senior citizens with children and young adults in mutually supportive and stimulating environments.
For example, researchers have demonstrated that intergenerational programs which bring together nursery school
children with seniors citizens significantly improve social interaction levels among both groups (Strom & Strom,
1995; Short-DeGraff & Diamond, 1996). Similarly, others have shown that when college students are encouraged
to interact with older adults, they are significantly less likely to develop negative stereotypes about the aging
process and more likely to formulate meaningful relationships with older adults (Dellmann-Jenkins et al., 1994;
McGowan & Blankenship, 1994).
Despite the presence of promising research findings within the social sciences,
there has been very little systematic research to examine the impact of intergenerational programming in the area
of physical activity and aging. This lack of research into intergenerational programming in the exercise sciences
is unfortunate because research from other disciplines strongly suggests that intergenerational programs have the
potential to enhance the quality of the physical activity experience for young and old alike, which in turn, may
enhance the appeal of physical activity interventions for many individuals.
By bringing together senior citizens and younger persons in the gymnasium,
on the playing fields, in the classroom, and on the stage, programs which are both interdisciplinary and
intergenerational have the potential to broaden the horizons and sensitivities of all involved, as well as positively
impacting on their physical and psychological well-being. The extent to which we are able to take advantage
of the impetus provided by IYOP 1999 and truly build "a society for all ages" may depend on our ability
to develop such initiatives which bring together persons of all ages in mutually supportive physical, social,
and educational environments.
In summary, tremendous progress has been made with respect to our understanding of the role of physical activity
in successful aging since the first International Congress on Physical Activity, Aging, and Sports was held in
West Point, New York in 1984. However, much remains unknown and many questions remain unanswered. The launching
of the International Society for Aging and Physical Activity is a significant milestone in our move to understanding
more about the role that active aging plays in improving quality of life for older persons around the world.
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